Diversity in American Education Before 1960 Essay Example for Free

Diversity in American Education Before 1960 Essay The diversity in terms of the student population in American education before 1960 was largely dependent upon the issue of racial equality. The push for racial equality in the United States got a boost from the demands placed on all facets of society during World War II. The mobilization effort relied on the black race to win the war and once it was over, there was no turning back. Furthermore, the ideals of freedom and equality, which were the backbone of the Allied war cry and the foundation for the anti-communist Western movement, did not sit well alongside Jim Crow laws and public acts of racial discrimination. The Jim Crow System is also called â€Å"segregation†. It is a process in and through which Southerners may be said to legitimize their racial supremacy over the Blacks or Negroes. It is a system in and through which the central idea is â€Å"differentiation†. The aforementioned differentiation is done on the basis of ethnicity or race. It is therefore not difficult to see that such a system will encounter numerous criticisms due to the implications that result from it. Differentiation entails the recognition that races are different and as such, it creates a political setting that â€Å"separates† races such as the Whites from the Blacks. In addition to this, it also separates and ultimately, limits or confines races such as the Blacks to a social sphere with corresponding social functions that are imposed on them. In line with this, this paper will focus on the manifestations and effects of racial segregation on the American public educational system before 1960. It will do so since the end of racial segregation within the American public school system was largely determined by the effects of the Civil Rights movement as can be seen in the discussion of the Supreme Court Cases on educational and racial equality before 1960. The following cases will show the effects of racial inequality on the diversity of the population in the American public educational system prior to the aforementioned period. In 1954, the United States of America’s Supreme Court decided a landmark case concerning educational and racial equality. In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U. S. 483 (1954), the Court’s ruling is grounded on the principle that the doctrine of â€Å"separate but equal† [this doctrine is referring to the segregation policy, more specifically, the segregation policy in the schools in the U. S. ] will not and cannot provide Black Americans with the same standards and quality of education available for White Americans. The court thus, outlawed the â€Å"racial segregation of public education facilities† for the aforementioned reason. On May 17, 1954 the Warren Court handed down a 9-0 decision which stated, in clear and certain terms, that â€Å"separate educational facilities are inherently unequal†. Chief Justice Warren writes: Today, education is perhaps the most important function of state and local governments. Compulsory school attendance laws and the great expenditures for education both demonstrate our recognition of the importance of education to our democratic society. It is required in the performance of our most basic public responsibilities, even service in the armed forces. It is the very foundation of good citizenship. Today it is a principal instrument in awakening the child to cultural values, in preparing him for later professional training, and in helping him to adjust normally to his environment. In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms. (1954, np) Moreover, racial segregation, as the court sees it, is against the pronouncements of the Constitution; the segregation of students on the basis of race or ethnicity and the legalization of a segregated public school education through the enactment of certain statutes serving to legitimize the creation and operation of schools that are exclusively for Whites or for Blacks, is clearly, not justified. The Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka remains and is still considered as a turning point in the determination of racial diversity in the educational institutions within the United States. The second case involves an implication of the Brown Cases [Brown Cases since there are Brown I, II and III cases]. Due to the Supreme Court’s verdict that segregation is â€Å"unconstitutional† and of course, due to the increasing rallies, boycotts and protests conducted by the advocates of the Civil Rights Movement, issues regarding â€Å"busing† as an appropriate means by which school administrators may comply with the then seemingly constitutional requirement of â€Å"desegregation†. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 402 U. S. 1 (1971) was an important United States Supreme Court case which deals with the busing of students to promote integration in the public school system. After the first trial’s decision in favor of the Board of Education, the Court held that â€Å"busing† was the appropriate solution to address the existing racial imbalance among schools at the time, even where the imbalance resulted from the selection of students based on geographic proximity to the school rather than from deliberate assignment based on race. Busing was done as in the cases of two Northern cities; Boston and New York to ensure that schools would be properly integrated and that all students would receive equal educational opportunities regardless of their ethnicity or race Milliken vs. Bradley 418 U. S. 717 (1974), just like the Swann n. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education case is also another case concerning â€Å"busing†. Specifically, the Milliken vs. Bradley case deals with the â€Å"planned forced busing† of public school students across district lines among 53 school districts in Detroit. Hence, the case is also a consequence of the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case. The Court held that â€Å"[w]ith no showing of significant violation by the 53 outlying school districts and no evidence of any interdistrict violation or effect†, the district court’s remedy was â€Å"wholly impermissible† and not justified by Brown v. Board of Education (Milliken vs. Bradley 418 U. S. 717, 1974, np). The following statement by Friedman echoes the ramifications of the Milliken v. Bradley case The world was made safe for white flight. White suburbs were secure in their grassy enclaves. Official, legal segregation indeed was dead; but what replaced it was a deeper, more profound segregation Tens of thousands of black children attend schools that are all black, schools where they never see a white face; and they live massed in ghettos which are also entirely black. (Friedman, 2004, p. 296) Another case set during 1974 shows the conditions of diversity in the American public school system prior to 1960. Morgan v. Hennigan is a class action suit on behalf of fifteen Black parents and 43 children which found the Boston School Committee guilty of maintaining a dual, that is, segregated school system. In a court order issued by Garrity, imposed or forced busing will be done on the city of Boston in order to achieve racial balance in public schools. The aforementioned court order was based on a complex system of racial parity and ignored previous busing solutions. The Boston School Committee, according to the ruling of the court, through various means and capacities violated the constitutional rights of the plaintiffs by imposing segregation in terms assigning students to other areas, segregating residential patterns, transportation and grade system policies, to name a few. The School Committee thus, violated the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution because instead of ensuring that Black children be given equal protection under the law, the segregation policies instead placed the Black children in an unfair disadvantage. The proper course of action that schools should take according to the court is to enact policies that will eliminate racial discrimination and not its converse. We will now discuss Boston Busing in the light of Ronald Formisano’s Boston Against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s. Formisano’s conclusion regarding busing was that it is a failure. The main aims of desegregation are supposedly, educational equality and racial equality. Both aims however, were never achieved. The desegregation and affirmative action policies were results of the Civil Rights Movement and the Supreme Court rulings on the cases discussed earlier. History reveals that the expedited implementation of these policies was not beneficial to the American society since it involves an overhaul of large areas of American civil society and political culture. This construal may be strengthened by the â€Å"White Backlash Movements† in Boston. Formisano sees the White Backlash [as in the case of Boston] as a reaction to the implemented â€Å"forced busing†. He further defines the White’s reaction as a â€Å"reactionary populism† involving the middle, working class moved by a sense of â€Å"threat† regarding the policies implemented during the time and the escalating number of White v. Black incidents in the community and schools. It is also interesting to note that the White Backlash, like the Civil Rights Movement of the Blacks lacked a unified reaction and stand on the issue. Whites responded differently, so to speak, on the issue of forced busing. Formisano’s analysis that the White Backlash is moved by a sense of threat is indeed a plausible idea. Other Whites actually support the anti-racial discrimination campaigns but the expedited implementation of desegregation, forced busing and affirmative action threatened their sense of security and their sense of community. In other words, it went too far. Given the aforementioned cases, diversity in American public education before 1960 was largely determined by racial stratification. This however was largely affected by the Civil Rights movement since the movement questioned the main assumption regarding the treatment of individuals with different racial backgrounds. References Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U. S. 483 (1954). Friedman, L. (2002). American Law in the Twentieth Century. New Haven: Yale University Press. Formisano, R. (2004). Boston Against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s. Carolina: University of Carolina Press. Milliken vs. Bradley 418 U. S. 717 (1974). Morgan v. Hennigan, 379 F. Supp. 410 (1974). Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 402 U. S. 1 (1971). Warren in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U. S. 483 (1954).

Coaching Decisions :: essays research papers

Coaching Decisions On December 20, 1996, Granite City's girls' basketball coach, Chuck Kraus, appeared to be agitated during the halftime conference with his players. After minutes of yelling, he began to use profanity. Five minutes later, he picked up a bench and threw it across the locker room. Assistant coach John Moad tried to settle Kraus down, but he failed. The coach pushed him into the lockers and tossed chalk into his face. This halftime outburst cost Coach Kraus a three game suspension. The first practice after his suspension, Kraus held a meeting with the players and the parents. Jan Shanefelt, the starting point guard of the varsity team, asked the coach why he came back, the girls liked playing under Coach Moad better. Quickly, Kraus became agitated and threw a hard chest pass that hit Jan in the arm. The next day Kraus wrote a letter of resignation for the rest of the year and will resume his duties in the fall of '97. Should Coach Kraus just get suspended for the rest of the year, or should he never be allowed to coach again? I think Coach Kraus should be fired without any hesitation. Many of the players and the parents wanted Kraus fired after the first incident, and they definitely want him fired now. In school systems today, many incidents similar to this happen often. Are athletic coaches today given too much power and think they can do whatever they think can improve the team? The coaches should be setting examples to the players, not putting them down. Athletics are not about winning and losing, it is about getting the most out of your players. Sometimes the players lose their concentration during the game and need to be reassured during the halftime discussion. Verbal abuse does not help the players at all. Coaches also need to remember that they are teaching teenagers, not adults. Teenage girls look up to their coaches, and lean toward them for guidance. After the first incident, Coach Kraus claimed to be sick which gave him a short temper. The December 22 issue of the Granite City Journal supported Kraus, saying "he is not the type of man to lose control like that. As much as Kraus has given to the girls' team, he shouldn't be punished for using profanity one time." The school board President Jeff Parker stated "he is not a person that coaches for the money, he coaches because of his affection for the kids." These are just some of the explanations in Kraus's defense to help persuade the school not to punish him.

Economics and Scholarship Essay

Through my whole life, I had dreamt of helping people especially those who deserve justice. For this reason, my goal is to graduate from university and become a lawyer. Therefore, I need to find resources that could help me to achieve my goals. There are many ways in which this scholarship will facilitates me. First of all, this scholarship will make it easier for me to function well in my education goals. It gives me an opportunity to further my education at University of Malaya in the field of Law. The scholarship would also provide me with a wealth of chances to take on extra-curricular activities and broaden my experiences to achieve my goals. In particular, it would enable me to be involved in community projects and eventually develop a stronger sense of civic responsibility, teamwork and leadership. Hence, this scholarship would ultimately enable me to apply such skills and experience to my on-going studies and make a positive contribution within the university and wider community. In addition, this scholarship would ensure that my studies are not burdened by financial constraints. See more: how to write a college scholarship essay format In my case, although my father works as government servant, he has to support a family of six. He has to bear my brothers’ school expenses. Moreover, my sister and I are currently pursuing higher education which requires high expenditure. Therefore, a scholarship is vital to alleviate my father’s burden and ease the financial problem in my family. Hence, I would be able to concentrate effectively on completing my studies, not only economically, but also for my personal and professional enrichment. Furthermore, a scholarship recipient is an important achievement that will raise my credentials to obtain a meaningful employment. Besides, it also acts as a useful vehicle to meet variety of people who can assist me in achieving my goals. This opportunity would further build up and improve my confidence and communication skills, an ability necessary to broaden my development as a scholar and an individual. In conclusion, I would greatly appreciate if you would consider me for this scholarship. I certainly believe that this scholarship can make a remarkable contribution to my education in the near future.

Counseling And Related Educational Programs - 1522 Words

Counseling is a longstanding profession that has provided care for individuals worldwide. Part of the history of the profession, is the accreditation process that has assisted in unifying counseling along with related fields. The Counsel for Accreditation of Counseling Related Educational Programs (CACREP) is the organization that accredits post bachelorette programs in counseling and associated professions, offered by colleges and universities internationally (Welcome, 2014). Some of the purposes held by CACREP include creating excellent programs in counseling and related disciplines, accrediting professional preparation curriculums, and developing standards for preparation programs (Vision, 2014). Without the existence of CACREP, the†¦show more content†¦COPA was the leading authority by which accrediting organizations were deemed legitimate. One way the ACES sought to gain approval from COPA, was by creating intentionally distinct entry-level preparation for both masterà ¢â‚¬â„¢s and doctoral level. This decision made it possible to have accreditation of doctorate programs which gives CACREP multiple advantages over other accrediting establishments, such as American Psychological Association (APA). Other precursors, such as a push for state accreditation in California during the late 1970s, aided the pushed for national accreditation. This is just a brief history of how CACREP was developed though agreements with existing accreditation programs, multiple professional and political maneuvers, and a determination to further develop the counseling discipline (Sweeney, 1992). CACREP’s first meeting was held in September 1981 and the organization adopted the ACES standards as the first set of standards for CACREP (Bobby, 2013). By 1986, CACREP had received several requests to include specialty standards, CACREP created a policy that stated standard revisions would occur on a scheduled basis. The purpose of this new policy was to organize the review and implementation of new or revised standards as well as provide time for the CACREP Board to review the validity and reliability of current requirements and processes. In May 1987, CACREP presented its new standards and has continuously addedShow MoreRelatedAn Awareness Of Counseling And Related Educational Programs1334 Words   |  6 PagesWith this in mind, counselors need an awareness of the unique counseling concerns that may arise when working with people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). Counselor education programs (CEPs) prepare students to serve as competent clinicians who are capable of working with different populations (e.g., substance abuse or mental health) in an array of clinical settings (Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs [CACREP], 2015). Many CEPs begin with focus on knowledge-basedRead MoreThe Council For Accreditation Of Counseling And Related Educational Programs2128 Words   |  9 PagesAbstract In 1981, the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs was established (CACREP, 2016b). Before its official establishment it went through challenges. These challenges were for CACREP to be an accrediting agency for masters- and doctoral-level programs and establishing a Commission on Standards Implementation (Sweeney, 1992). CACREP has six standards for which current and future accreditation programs must follow (CACREP, 2016c). The purpose of these standardsRead MoreThe University Of Mississippi State University Essay1000 Words   |  4 PagesMississippi State University was founded in the 1870’s as a land-grant college. Today, the university is comprised of eight different colleges that offer over 160 degrees. These include many master and doctoral degree programs. Some of the most popular programs include nursing, business, counseling and psychology. Over 70 percent of students are Mississippi residents. Every year, over 20,000 students att end the university. The six-year graduation rate is around 60 percent and the annual retention rate isRead MoreProfessional Preparation And Credentials : Marriage, Couple, And Family Counseling Essay1249 Words   |  5 Pages Professional Preparation and Credentials: Marriage, Couple and Family Counseling Nataly Gomez Walden University Abstract Professional counselors with the expertise in marriage, couple, and family counseling have certain standards to go by in order to become a licensure counselor. The CACREP is both a process and a status, it is a guide with specific standards to help with the preparation of becoming a licensure counselor. In order to become a counselor, there are certainRead MoreClinical Psychology. A Clinical Psychologist Or The Psychological1081 Words   |  5 Pagescomplete a 1-year internship as part of the doctoral program (BLS, 2017). A well-known professional organization that support and certify those in the Clinical psychology field is the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP). The ABPP has a member board entitled The American Board of Clinical Psychology (ABCP) which oversees and authorizes the credentialing activities of thirteen specialty boards, responsible for establishing criteria related to the definition and requirements for education,Read MoreCareer Exploration Paper1320 Words   |  6 PagesExploration Paper Career Field Occupation Choice Within society, there are many occupations to explore and chose. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) results showed that my personal career strengths fall under the area of teaching and counseling. Currently, as a school counselor for a high school in Duncanville, Texas, a suburb outside of Dallas, I find the results of the assessment to be very accurate. Making the decision to become a counselor is a rewarding and exciting career choiceRead MoreLicensed Counselor Counseling950 Words   |  4 Pagesthe experience and intern hours needed to be a Licensed Professional Counselor (Counseling licensure in Texas, 2015). The person seeking credentials as a Licensed Professional Counselor must earn a master’s or doctoral level degree in counseling or a counseling-related field from a college or university accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). The graduate program must be at least 48 semester hours with studies in the areas of â€Å"normal humanRead MoreAccountability in School Counseling Program Essay1351 Words   |  6 PagesAccountability and the Use of Data in School Counseling and Educational Systems Melissa Hattaway Lamar University CNDV 5330 Accountability and the Use of Data in School Counseling and Educational Systems Over the years, literature has expressed the need for, and importance of, accountability for student outcomes in order to give school counselors valuable data to assess and improve goals (Dahir Stone, 2009). The ASCA National Model also supports the importanceRead MoreThe Victims Of Children With Disabilities1331 Words   |  6 Pagestraining programs to include training across all disability areas. Furthermore, in 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (PL 89-10) and the State Schools Act (PL 89-313) provided states with direct grant assistance to help educate children with disabilities. Furthermore, the Handicapped Children’s Early Education Assistance Act of 1968 (PL 90-538) and the Economic Opportunities Amendments of 1972 (PL 92-424) authorized support for, respectively, exemplary early childhood programs and increasedRead MoreI Interviewed A Counselor Named Cristina Kleinfelter957 Words   |  4 Pageswhen she goes to the classroom to teach social skills, a nd help with college. They both have a mixed population of students they work with whether it be students from broken homes, good homes, etc. She has her Master’s Degree in Counseling and is certified in school counseling, she has been in this field for 14 years so far. She works with the 8th graders the most, with their high school schedules, she explains to them how to pick classes and how to apply to the Western Center. She plans the field trip